What is Dysgraphia?

And how do we help students who struggle with composition, handwriting, and pencil grip?

Dysgraphia is a language-based disorder that interferes with learning to write. This difficulty happens at both the foundational level of learning and at the word level of learning. Weak skills in matching sounds to letters, known as a sublexical weakness, negatively affects a student's ability to adequately store and efficiently recall letter shapes and orientation.

Sound-to-letter weakness also impedes the student’s ability to develop fast and automatic sight words for accurate spelling. This ability is known as word form memory. Poor word form memory even affects the student’s recall of simple, high-frequency words despite repeated exposure in reading.

These combined weaknesses — poor sound-to-letter connections and poor word from memory — prohibit the student from obtaining the level of writing fluency needed for successful composition.

The 4 Modes of Language

Learning to read and write are two abilities tied to our underlying language skills. When we learn to read and write, we repurpose many of the foundational skills we use to listen and speak. Think of language as one cognitive system that is represented in four modes:

• listening

• speaking

• reading

• writing

The first two modes (listening and speaking) develop naturally if children have typical cognitive skills and are given a healthy loving and learning environment. Reading and writing skills are taught, requiring the brain to repurpose the cognitive areas used for listening and speaking in order to build a strong literacy system.

Skills that connect written words to meaning and usage are called lexical skills, including vocabulary and grammar. For writing, grammar is tied to mechanics, and vocabulary is tied to the word-level skills of spelling and meaning. Word-level skills must become automatic in order to write fluently and spell accurately.

The difficulty in learning sound connections impedes the student's ability to easily and quickly remember, recall and create letters while writing. Sublexical skills include:

• phonological processing (discriminating between sounds and identifying sounds within words)

• phonological memory (recall of sound sequences needed for blending sounds into words)

• learning letter names easily and rapidly

• learning sound-to-letter connections easily and rapidly

• developing automatic sound-to-letter connections for fast recall in reading and writing

However, because dysgraphia is a difficulty in writing, sublexical skills also include:

• Rapid association of letter names to letter formation

• Automatic transcription of sounds-into-letters

• Visual differentiation and recall of letter size, direction, and orientation, in order to attach meaning to subtle differences; for example: b, d, p, q

• Recognition and recall of sound-to-letter constancy across variations in presentation; such as the differences in fonts for a and g, or between uppercase and lowercase letters

• Motor planning and memory for the sequential strokes needed to form letters; for example: straight, diagonal, and curved lines

• Proprioceptive and kinesthetic skills needed for movement

• Visual processing and analysis

Because students with dysgraphia have a combination of sublexical (sound-to-letter connections) and lexical (word spelling memory and recall) weaknesses which impede automatic letter and word production for fluent writing and accurate spelling, they experience significant cognitive fatigue when trying to write. 

Use this checklist to help you determine if your child may have dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is typically identified by a cluster of these common indicators: 

• Difficulty forming letters 

  • Persistent letter reversals 

  • Poor control of letter spacing

  • Idiosyncratic mix of capital and lowercase letters

  • Variable letter slant & alignment 

  • Difficulty managing letter height

  • Difficulty in making directional and sequential changes (called reciprocity)

    • Letters have sharp angles rather than smooth curves

    • Poor closure of connection points (Ex: the letter o may look like the letter u)

• Difficulty managing the margins of the paper

• Poor writing legibility

  • Many stops, restarts, and crossing out of errors

• Tight or awkward pencil grip

  • Complains of discomfort or pain

• Awkward approach to writing

  • Doesn’t stabilize the paper

• Little writing output

  • Difficulty getting thoughts on paper

  • Tires easily while writing

  • Avoids writing

• Slow writing speed

• Poor spelling 

  • Poor recall of simple, high frequency words

  • Difficulty spelling multisyllable words

• Weak written expression

  • Inattentiveness for details when writing

  • Quality is far less than oral expression

  • Weak writing mechanics 

  • Poor self editing

• Possible struggle in other fine motor skills

• Possible difficulty in following verbal directions involving sequencing and direction

How Can I Help My Student with Dysgraphia?

Kids with dysgraphia need caring adults who take the time to support them and find the teaching methods and resources they need. Kudos to you for gaining knowledge and pursuing answers to help your learner! 

Teaching children with dysgraphia demands specific instruction that includes:

• Research-based teaching strategies to strengthen handwriting skills, with an emphasis on learning cursive

• Explicit and systematic instruction to establish strong sound-to-letter connections — shored up in reading but specific to writing and spelling

• Engaged writing practice on individualized skills, including using skills in original writing

• Consolidation of foundational handwriting and spelling skills applied in context to build writing fluency

• Strategies to strengthen the phonological component of handwriting by having the student say sounds as they write letters, syllables, and words

• Consistent and targeted practice routines at least five days per week over many years 

• Continual review to help solidify new learning

• Modifications to help students perform at grade level while using their writing skills

We teach using the necessary approach to help your child reach their full potential. The good news is that these teaching methods benefit all students, helping everyone become competent and independent learners.

Are There Tests for Dysgraphia?

Because some students with dysgraphia may also have dyslexia and/or an underlying Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), students should receive a comprehensive assessment for all areas of concern. Testing for these learning struggles includes assessing three key sublexical skills:

• Phonological Processing

• Phonological Memory

• Rapid Automatic Naming

A comprehensive evaluation will also measure the student’s sublexical writing skills and writing fluency:

• Alphabet memory in writing

• Letter formation accuracy

• Letter and word legibility

• Writing speed

• Writing fluency (accuracy + speed when copying text & in original writing)

Note: Tests to determine dysgraphia are relatively new and may be limited based on the age of the student. If a standardized dysgraphia assessment is not available, an inventory of dysgraphia symptoms is sufficient to recommend intervention using evidence-based instruction.

Assessments will also measure the student’s lexical skills:

• Spelling

• Reading accuracy

• Reading fluency

• Reading comprehension

• Listening comprehension

An inventory of the student’s speech and language development is also obtained to determine if there is a history of speech or language delay. If a Developmental Language Disorder is suspected, the assessment should also address the following areas:

• Language Working memory

• Syntax skills

• Sentence formulation skills

• Vocabulary level

If you are still unsure about testing but would like answers to your specific questions, schedule a consultation. We can help you develop a learning plan and path forward for your student!